Feminism and Post Feminism
Gender
There are many debates about what makes a 'feminist' and even more about what makes someone 'female'. You don't necessarily need to go into these debates in your project but you should be aware of them because definitions of 'female' will inform the research you are reading.
- What is gender? Judith Butler is one of the key theorists about gender. She believes gender is not so much about bodies and genitalia as about the way we use those bodies in everyday life - in other works, the way we 'perform' our gender identity. This is a social constructivist definition of gender which is commonly accepted today.
Types of Feminism
Contemporary Western Feminism is generally White, upper middle class, abled and heterosexual. The focus on the empowerment of celebrities and individual (White, abled, heterosexual) women in powerful high-paying jobs has garnered criticism because this type of Feminism excludes those who are poor, differently-abled, GLTBIQA+, from non-Christian religions and/or from non-European backgrounds. This has led to a high level of differentiation in types of Feminism. Some people feel that Feminism has lost its purpose (to fight institutionalised patriarchy and create equality for all women) while others feel that it is important that every individual can find a type of Feminism that is relevant to their own experiences. The headings below reflect some of these differences.
The waves of feminism is is a quick history of feminism and Feminists from three different generations gives an understanding of how different types of feminists have responded to the #me too movement. Why feminism still matters to young people looks at the relevance of feminism for young women. Feminist representation in the media is a video podcast about feminism today; it covers various types of feminism without naming them.
Disclaimer: I'm a socialist Feminist, which makes me biased against the types of Feminism that don't lead to large scale change. As a good researcher, I'm trying hard to keep that bias out of this page - call me out if you think this page isn't reflecting everyone!
The waves of feminism is is a quick history of feminism and Feminists from three different generations gives an understanding of how different types of feminists have responded to the #me too movement. Why feminism still matters to young people looks at the relevance of feminism for young women. Feminist representation in the media is a video podcast about feminism today; it covers various types of feminism without naming them.
Disclaimer: I'm a socialist Feminist, which makes me biased against the types of Feminism that don't lead to large scale change. As a good researcher, I'm trying hard to keep that bias out of this page - call me out if you think this page isn't reflecting everyone!
Liberal Feminisms
"In the past decade feminism has gone from being a malediction to being a popular, even trendy, phenomenon, embraced by everyone from Anthony Bourdain to Ivanka Trump." (Lifestyle Feminism” Gets a Bad Rap, But It’s a Great Gateway to Activism) Liberal feminism or post feminism or ifeminism or lifestyle feminism or fourth wave feminism comes from claims that "angry and hateful" gender feminists have alienated women from feminism because of their anti-male attitude. It emphasises individual empowerment and achievement rather than targeting the institutionalised power structures that oppress women (which was the focus of second wave feminism from the '60s to the '90s).
"Individualist feminism argues that the slogan "a woman's body, a woman's right" should extend to every peaceful choice a woman can make. For example, it demands that all sexual choices, from motherhood to participating in pornography, be legally respected. The cost of such freedom is personal responsibility and a refusal to appeal to government for privilege or protection... individualist feminism looks at men and women and sees -- first and foremost -- individual human beings with a common, shared humanity. Just as men and women share basic biological needs, we share the same basic political needs: the same rights and responsibilities. The most basic political human right is to the peaceful enjoyment of our own bodies and of our own property. The most basic political human responsibility is to respect the peaceful decisions other people make with their bodies and their property. At bare minimum, we must legally tolerate the peaceful choices of others, even if we do not personally respect or consider those choices to be moral. In short, the highest political good for both men and women doesn't come from." Gender Feminism and Ifeminism: Wherein They Differ.
Definitions include:
Others reply that "Feminist cultural practices are deeply important as points of access—places where women first encounter feminism and begin to identify with it.... We need to recognize that the future of the feminist movement rests on these cultural practices. For most women no other feminist context may exist... we need to harness the energy of lifestyle feminism and direct it into something more transformational for women across lines of race and class, so that its benefits extend beyond those most likely to watch Netflix or buy concert tickets."(Lifestyle Feminism” Gets a Bad Rap, But It’s a Great Gateway to Activism)
"Individualist feminism argues that the slogan "a woman's body, a woman's right" should extend to every peaceful choice a woman can make. For example, it demands that all sexual choices, from motherhood to participating in pornography, be legally respected. The cost of such freedom is personal responsibility and a refusal to appeal to government for privilege or protection... individualist feminism looks at men and women and sees -- first and foremost -- individual human beings with a common, shared humanity. Just as men and women share basic biological needs, we share the same basic political needs: the same rights and responsibilities. The most basic political human right is to the peaceful enjoyment of our own bodies and of our own property. The most basic political human responsibility is to respect the peaceful decisions other people make with their bodies and their property. At bare minimum, we must legally tolerate the peaceful choices of others, even if we do not personally respect or consider those choices to be moral. In short, the highest political good for both men and women doesn't come from." Gender Feminism and Ifeminism: Wherein They Differ.
Definitions include:
- Post-feminism – what is it?
- ifeminism
- Why does lifestyle feminism get a bad rap? (about cultural feminism)
- The Personal and the Apolitical: Lifestyle Feminism and Neoliberalism
- Raising awareness doesn't actually effect change (if it stops there)
- It's a form of 'clicktivism' or 'slacktisim' (adding a like or sharing an issue doesn't change anything)
- There's a big difference between personal empowerment and social change. ifeminists believe that "You cannot create equality with men by embedding gender privilege for women into the law," but they do not realise that feminism isn't asking for any special privileges; they're just trying to make a world build on male privilege more equal for everyone.
Others reply that "Feminist cultural practices are deeply important as points of access—places where women first encounter feminism and begin to identify with it.... We need to recognize that the future of the feminist movement rests on these cultural practices. For most women no other feminist context may exist... we need to harness the energy of lifestyle feminism and direct it into something more transformational for women across lines of race and class, so that its benefits extend beyond those most likely to watch Netflix or buy concert tickets."(Lifestyle Feminism” Gets a Bad Rap, But It’s a Great Gateway to Activism)
Gender-based feminisms
This is the current incarnation of Second Wave Feminism and socialist Feminism because it focuses on broad-scale social and political changes. It may operate in a specific area (women in the music industry) or around a particular issue (domestic violence) and tries to change laws that discriminate against women or bring in new laws that will protect women's rights. These types of feminism believe that "any woman who colludes with systems that harm women is working in opposition to feminism... feminism is inching toward being more intersectional by centering people at the margins, including women of color, Muslim women, black women, indigenous women, transgender people, queer people, and poor people. In being more inclusive, feminism is also beginning to forge new commitments... Trans issues are feminist issues because transgender women are women. If feminism is about protecting all women, it must extend to trans women who are fighting to exist... advocating for the freeing of both Palestinian and Israeli women is central to feminism's premise... Islamophobia is a feminist issue because it has an impact on the life outcomes of Muslim women... However, everything a woman does is not inherently feminist because she deems it so. You can wear a T-shirt that proclaims your participation in that movement, but if your beliefs and actions are oppressive, you are not a feminist." (If Your Beliefs Are Oppressive, You Are Not a Feminist).
Definitions of gender based feminisms.
Activist organisations
Specific issues from this perspective:
Criticisms of this feminism include:
Many modern feminists feel that these types of feminisms can not exist without perpetuating the stereotype of the angry man-hater who wants to destroy society as we know it. this is because "gender feminists can level accusations of "oppressor" at non-violent men because every man is a beneficiary of patriarchy, of "the rape culture" and, so, every man oppresses every woman. In other words, men as a class are said to have constructed institutions that oppress women as a class. To eliminate the oppression of women, it is necessary to deconstruct those institutions, such as the free market and the traditional family, and to reconstruct them according to a gender feminist vision." Gender Feminism and Ifeminism: Wherein They Differ (p.6)
Definitions of gender based feminisms.
- Socialist feminists see capitalism (the current Western economic structure) as oppressive for every one but especially for women: "Capitalism is a feminist issue because economic inequality disproportionately impacts women" (If Your Beliefs Are Oppressive, You Are Not a Feminist). Ypu can read more about it at Socialist Feminism vs. Other Types of Feminism.
- Anarcha Feminism believes that all forms of oppression should be destroyed, including the 'democratic' state. You can read more about this is in Anarchism and Feminism.
Activist organisations
- Femen (a radical feminist group)
- Equality Rights Alliance
- Young Women Speak Out
- Women's Electoral Lobby
Specific issues from this perspective:
- For the Woman Who Wants the World – Commodified Feminism. "Women’s changed status in the workplace is now being recognized but the focus is on how they look in the workplace, with numerous features on power dressing. The version of feminism on offer is a commodified form that accords with the commercial aims of the magazines. New discourses relating to female desire are discordant with other sections of the magazine that reproduce the dominant patriarchal ideology of normative heterosexism".
- I Can Sell My Body If I Wanna: Riot Grrrl Body Writing and Performing Shameless Feminist Resistance " concludes that shamelessness might remain a promising space for an urgent anti-racist, feminist politics, if it can work to destabilize power and center women from oppressed groups."
- Gender in the Music Industry: Rock Discourse and Girlpower examines "the impact of gender on the everyday life of performing musicians; gendered attitudes in music journalism, promotion and production; the responses and strategies developed by female performers; the feminist network riot grrrl and the succession of international festivals it inspired under the name of Ladyfest." Rock, Discourse and Girl Power
Criticisms of this feminism include:
- It gives Feminism a bad image of loud, angry man-haters (a serious problem in a culture that views criticism as rude)
- A small group of Feminists are setting the agenda for all women (and thus excluding the voices of women of colour, differently-abled women etc)
- It's out of touch with how the (Western) world works now (esp. in terms of ideals like beauty and individualism)
Many modern feminists feel that these types of feminisms can not exist without perpetuating the stereotype of the angry man-hater who wants to destroy society as we know it. this is because "gender feminists can level accusations of "oppressor" at non-violent men because every man is a beneficiary of patriarchy, of "the rape culture" and, so, every man oppresses every woman. In other words, men as a class are said to have constructed institutions that oppress women as a class. To eliminate the oppression of women, it is necessary to deconstruct those institutions, such as the free market and the traditional family, and to reconstruct them according to a gender feminist vision." Gender Feminism and Ifeminism: Wherein They Differ (p.6)
Intersectional Feminism
Intersectional Feminism happens when women experience more than on type of intersecting discrimination, such as race and gender or sexuality and gender. The particular struggles of Women of Colour, same-sex attracted women, transwomen, migrant women, differently-abled women (etc) are marginalised by the majority of contemporary feminists, so Intersectional feminism brings these experiences to the foreground.
You can find Definitions of Intersections feminism at:
Intersectional feminist organisations:
Studies that focus on specific types of intersectional feminism:
Criticisms of this feminism include:
You can find Definitions of Intersections feminism at:
- Why We Need To Talk About White Feminism (video)
- What is "Intersectional Feminism"?.
- What does intersectional feminism actually mean?
- Intersectionality 101: Why “we’re focusing on women” doesn’t work for Diversity & Inclusion.
Intersectional feminist organisations:
Studies that focus on specific types of intersectional feminism:
- Where are all the women? looks at same-sex attracted women in the workplace
Criticisms of this feminism include:
- It fragments Women into small groups so that they have no overall power
- It focuses on issues that are not applicable to everyone
- It tends to be dominated by White middleclass , heterosexual feminists who don't understand the issue
Negative Stereotypes of Feminism
"Whilst being told they are as extinct as dinosaurs, feminists are simultaneously depicted as if they more or less rule the world. Depending on who you listen to, feminism has gone too far, is out of control, must be reversed, causes you to be unhealthy and makes you unhappy. Even stories that are positive about feminism have negative headlines" (Reclaiming the f-word). Any project about attitudes to feminism needs to examine where these negative representations come from. These article try to find the roots of the backlash against feminism:
- Feminist Representation in the Media (video)
- "Because I Shave My Armpits…": A Content Analysis of #WomenAgainstFeminism on Twitter identifies key insults used to put down feminism but also notes that the primary use of this hashtag is to use it ironically to critique anti-feminism!
- The "F" Word: How the Media Frame Feminism
- Rejecting the ‘F’- Word: How Feminism and Feminists are Understood in the Newsroom
Teen Feminists
We keep being told we're in a post-feminist era where feminism is no longer relevant, but here are many teens who are making waves as feminist activists in various ways. Think critically about the girls in these lists: How did they get involved in feminism? Which aspects of feminism do they reflect? What kinds of positive changes are they making in their lives and/or the lives of other women?
SINEAD - STOP HERE! BELOW THIS IS FOR OTHER STUDENTS
- Six 'intersectional' feminists under 30 we all need to know about
- 5 Teenage Feminists You Should Know, Because They're The Future Of The Movement
- 3 Feminists you may not know are changing the world
- Young Australian Women to look out for in 2018
- Meet Eva, the 5-year-old feminist icon for our time (mostly for the cute value, but it does bring up good points)
SINEAD - STOP HERE! BELOW THIS IS FOR OTHER STUDENTS
Contemporary Women's Issues
These articles give an overview of contemporary feminist issues:
Feminism and Beauty
- Femininities-Lite: Diet Culture, Feminism and Body Policing argues that women are encouraged to comply with the otherwise oppressive dietary practices under the guise of feminist empowerment. Through the identification of post-feminist and liberal-individualist narratives, harmful notions of choice and empowerment are used to perpetuate body-surveillance messages to women."
Feminism and Media
- "Your Ticket to Dreamsville": The Functions of 16 Magazine in American Girl Culture of the 1960s " Profiles of pop music and television stars, advice columns, beauty features, gossip columns, and “Your Ticket to Dreamsville” contests encouraged normative gender and consumer behavior for girls, yet broadened the definitions of “appropriate” behavior and style by incorporating countercultural signifiers, while the language throughout the magazine merged youth lingo with discourses of American patriotism. "
Violence against Women
Rape and consent